ABSTRACT
Over the past decades, an interesting phenomenon concerning the class status of immigrant ethnic groups has captured the attention of numerous scholars who have tried to understand why certain immigrant groups tend to outperform their white peers, the ethnic majority, in both the US and European countries. We are talking about the impressive academic and professional achievements of Asian communities in the West. Believing that Asian people are inherently more intelligent solely because their ethnicity is purely a misconception, and although these stereotypes might be fuelled by observable outstanding results, the reason behind their success is tied to their cultural values, family pressure, and educational system. However, why do these factors play a pivotal role in determining said success, and most importantly, how do these seemingly positive stereotypes harm those to whom it is attached?
The Different Asian Experience in the US and Europe
As we delve into our analysis, it is necessary to distinguish between the experiences of Asian communities in the United States in the United Kingdom and those in the European Union, as the latter has a significantly smaller Asian population than the other two countries. In 2019, the total number of Asian immigrants in the United States was approximately 14 million, accounting for approximately 30% of the immigrant population, the largest immigrant group after Latinos’ communities [8]. In 2021, approximately 9.3% of the United Kingdom's population, around 5.5 million individuals, were of Asian origin, the largest non-white ethnic demographic in the country [10].
In other European countries, the situation differs slightly; most immigrants typically come from other European nations, while non-European immigrants often arrive as refugees, especially from Africa and the Middle East. In Sweden, the majority of immigrants come from former Yugoslavia, Poland, Finland, Syria, Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan. East Asians, South Asians, and Southeast Asians represent relatively small demographic [13]. In France, where the immigrant population is less than 7 million, approximately 2 million immigrants are Europeans, another 2 million arrive from North Africa, around 1 million from sub-Saharan Africa, and the remaining are from other regions of the world [4]. Italy witnesses a similar scenario: with an immigrant population exceeding 6 million, the largest group originates from Romania, with over a million long-term residents, followed by Albanians and Moroccans [12,14]. The major Asian immigrant groups, in descending order, are from China, Bangladesh, India, the Philippines, and Pakistan, and do not add up to a million [14].
This demonstrates that Asian communities in European countries are considerably smaller and less diverse compared to those in the United States. Given the disparities in population size and the conditions under which Asian immigrants live in Europe and North America, our research focuses primarily on the phenomenon observed in the United States.
The Model Minority Issue: the “Special” Perception of Asians in the West
Compared with other minority groups, Asian immigrants and Asian Americans generally enjoy a more favorable reputation as non-white citizens because of their excellent academic performance and high-income jobs taken up by members of Asian communities in Western countries. Labelled as the “Yellow Peril” until the 60s, Asian immigrants have since been redefined as model citizens because of their diligence and high performance. However, other than granting a higher socio-economic status, the persistent success has generated a profile of a “perfect immigrant,” sparking a debate about “good and bad minorities.” The new positive perception of Asians has fuelled contempt towards African Americans, who are subject to racial discrimination, thereby prompting Asians to “shift from being not quite white to being definitely not black” [5].
Even if perceived as a more favorable minority, Asians are still not considered equal to white citizens. They may be more educated, speak better English, occupy better jobs, and even adopt more conservative stances than conservative white Americans; yet, they will always be seen as less American than those who immigrated 200 years earlier. A study conducted in 2008 showed a double difficulty faced by second-generation immigrants born in Western countries to Asians who had moved there before starting a family. Not only are these kids stressed by the urge to prove themselves worthy of American citizenship, but they are also often pressured to maintain their cultural identity distinct from their Western one as to repay their parents for the sacrifices made to allow their children to access a higher social position, or to uphold the family name, as if the United States were not founded as a nation of immigrants [11]. Clear examples of such can be found in Punjabi communities in California or in Korean families, where the parents discourage their children from acting “Korean” outside their household with their white peers but insist on speaking the language and practicing the culture at home. The dual identity model has led many students to cling tightly to a culture to which they have limited access despite being part of it. This has resulted in a sense of cultural and ethnic superiority directed not toward whites but toward other Asian communities, leveraging the commonly higher status that Korean families hold compared to those from Southeast Asia [7]. The myth of the model minority is indeed harmful and serves as a perfect tool for the Dividi et impera agenda, as it perfectly embodies the concept of a nation built on meritocracy, where immigrants who work hard enough can live the true American Dream. It seeks to sow discord among different communities as a premise for further discrimination against groups such as the Black and Latino populations.
By Which Means They Can Actually Achieve These Outstanding Performances
Asian students achieved the highest total SAT average score, with an average of 1219, which is more than a hundred points higher than that of their White peers [9], and the highest average GPA at 3.39 [15]. The most well-grounded theory explaining such exceptional performances is that they are driven by strong individual determination, family expectations, and work ethics, all tied to their ethnic and cultural background, fitting the concept of the success frame and cultural and ethnic capital.
The success frame is a method of structuring one's view of life in terms of academic achievement, career, and family status, with goals differing depending on an individual's personal experiences and background. Asian families of the low-middle class usually adopt a frame for achievement that broadens their opportunities beyond what would have been anticipated by their current socio-economic status. Cultural and ethnic capital are sets of features stemming from the social and ethnic background of a person and help them navigate through life decisions and social mobility by exploiting their respective knowledge and experiences. Asian immigrant families construct a strict success frame that emphasizes academic excellence, attending elite universities, and pursuing high-status careers in medicine, engineering, higher education, law, etc. This frame is reinforced by co-ethnic networks provided by ethnic capital through shadow education (private supplementary tutoring) and role models, as well as intangible resources such as shared cultural expectations and role models. This frame represents not just a personal achievement but also an expectation of fulfilling in favor of the whole community, tying success to cultural identity. Those who fail to meet the strict standards of the frame feel like failures or ethnic outliers.
The rigidity of the success frame leads to an achievement paradox, where objectively high achievements may be viewed as insufficient [6]. According to a report from Cornell University in 1996, among the 21 student suicide victims, 13 were of Asian origin, and a survey conducted by the same university in 2005 showed that “Asian-American/Asian students seriously considered or attempted suicide at higher-than-average rates” [17]. Thus, the underlying danger, thus, lies in the unbearable toll that these expectations have on students’ mental health and emotional stability.
Further Research on Socio-Demographic Status and Cognitive Skills
Some scholars have suggested that in addition to ethnic and cultural influences, the socio-demographic status of Asian families plays a significant role in fostering academic success among members of the community, as most families are made up of two parents and high incomes, creating a more stable environment for children to grow up in. Asian immigrant families generally possess a high socioeconomic status, as they are the highest-earning ethnicity in the United States, with an average median income of $102,000 per year, surpassing the median income of white non-Hispanic families by more than 10% [16].
The overall high status of Asian families could stem from their status as immigrants rather than refugees, which implies the requirement to apply for visas to enter the U.S. and undergo a selection process by the American government. This “hyperselectivity” tends to favor immigrants with higher education or specialized skills, ensuring access to the United States to whoever wants to move there and looks appealing enough to take part in the American Dream. However, this hypothesis proves wrong since Asian students from low-income families usually achieve the same results as their wealthier classmates [18].
In the past, a theory was advanced that Asian students possessed superior cognitive skills compared to White students, which was later debunked by a growing body of evidence challenging such generalizations. To assert if cognitive abilities have any relevance in determining the Asian students’ advantage, various studies, such as the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, have been conducted comparing Asian and White students who attend the same schools and do not display missing values for academic achievement and deficits in cognitive skills. Not only were kindergarten and elementary school children assessed, but the data provided of the results were collected up to the 12th grade of the educational system in the United States. The objective of this study was to measure the difference between Asian and white students in academic achievements and cognitive skills; the former was assessed through teachers’ ratings of students’ attentiveness, hard work, and participation, and the latter was measured through “item response theory (IRT) scores” derived from standardized tests of math and reading. The general measurement of academic performance was obtained through proficiency in reading, math, and general knowledge from kindergarten to 8th grade and through GPA from 9th grade to 12th grade. Almost no difference in tested cognitive abilities was found between Asians and whites, given that 10th-grade Asian students had doubled their scores compared to their white peers [2]. Therefore, pure ethnicity fails to explain the outstanding performance of Asian students, and what comes to the fore is the incredible individual effort they put into their academic life and the social expectations they must meet as respect to their cultural values and parents’ demands, which often subjects them to suffer from their own success and strong work ethics.
The Educational System in Asian Countries: The Reflection of a Too Demanding Work Ethic and Family Pressure
The outlined phenomena often mirror a situation in which we may not be fully aware, unless they directly affect us. The remarkable academic efforts of Asian students are not confined to those living in the West; rather, they are quite common in their home countries. Educational systems in countries such as China, South Korea, and Singapore are among the most rigorous in the world, with students expecting to spend most of their time studying and participating in extracurricular activities. In 2001, the average number of South Korean students spent almost five times as many hours studying mathematics as the average American student. At the same time, 36 hours per week at school is often followed by private tutoring in the afternoon [3]. In China, every child’s life, since birth, gravitates around one crucial event: the national university admission test, better known as the GaoKao. It is taken by all high school students who strive to achieve the highest scores possible to secure their education in one of China's top universities, such as Tsinghua or Peking University. The exam consists of different parts: some are standardized for all students, such as Chinese literature, Mathematics, and English, while others are selected by the student based on the academic field they want to study in the university [1]. This system inherited the complexity and competitiveness of the ancient tradition of Chinese imperial exams, which were once the only way for citizens to work as government officers and secure respectable positions for themselves and their families.
Conclusion
Given all the information analyzed, it is evident that the academic success of Asian students can be attributed to their fierce determination to prove themselves worthy of their families’ high expectations, as well as the tools they access through their community, such as ethnic capital and shared success frames. Putting effort into what we do and holding ourselves at the highest standard is admirable. However, we must also remind ourselves that hard work alone does not guarantee achievement, as situational elements often play a substantial role in determining results.
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